Using a Spiral Curriculum for Better Child Learning

Are you aware of the value of using a spiral curriculum in effectively teaching children?

Originating from Jerome Bruner in the 1960s, a spiral curriculum involves revisiting topics with increasing complexity each time, reinforcing previous learning and introducing new content in context. By revisiting foundational knowledge and building upon it, students can deepen their understanding of the subject.

The key aim is to create connections between prior knowledge and new concepts, helping students develop a mental framework for learning. This ensures that information is not merely memorised but truly understood and can be applied in various contexts.

To facilitate this approach, educators must implement a well-designed curriculum with clearly outlined objectives and appropriate assessments for monitoring progress. By incorporating retrieval practice techniques and catering to diverse cognitive needs, educators can enhance the learning experience, leading to improved academic outcomes.

By structuring the curriculum effectively, students can better understand and retain information, resulting in a more engaging educational experience. In this article, we will explore the benefits of a spiral curriculum, key principles, and practical strategies for successful implementation in the classroom. We will also discuss how to differentiate instruction, assess student learning, and adapt the curriculum for various learning styles. Additionally, we will examine case studies of schools that have successfully implemented a spiral curriculum, as well as supporting research. By the end, you will have a comprehensive understanding of how a spiral curriculum can enhance student learning and practical insights for your teaching practice.

Benefits of Using a Spiral Curriculum

The spiral curriculum model is designed to keep students engaged and motivated throughout their learning journey. By revisiting and expanding their knowledge as they progress, students remain curious and explore new possibilities.

In a spiral curriculum, students delve into more abstract concepts, pushing themselves to tackle challenging ideas. This approach intertwines the syllabus and theory in a cohesive manner. Students engage in meaningful intellectual discussions guided by their teachers, promoting critical and creative thinking instead of just memorising facts.

This curriculum approach can be implemented across various subjects, building upon existing knowledge to create a web of interconnected learning. It helps educators and learners contextualise information within a broader framework, interweaving texts and information beautifully.

Promoting student autonomy and self-regulation is crucial for enhancing learning experiences and overall well-being. By fostering independence and self-control, students take greater ownership of their education and become more invested in the learning process. The principles of a spiral curriculum align with these concepts, adapting to individual learning paces and encouraging active engagement.

To encourage high-performance learning, it’s vital to nurture intrinsic motivation and a growth mindset. Implementing a spiral curriculum in the classroom allows students to revisit topics at increasing levels of complexity. This fosters cognitive development and critical thinking skills, promoting growth and innovation in child education.

Practical examples include:

• In language arts, students might start by identifying basic themes in a text in early years, and later, analyse those themes in more depth using literary criticism techniques.
• In science, students might begin learning about the water cycle at a primary level, and later, explore its impact on ecosystems and climate change in secondary years.

Understanding the key principles of a spiral curriculum is essential to effectively implement these strategies, leading to improved learning experiences and overall well-being for children. Let’s dive into the core principles next, examining how they support this progressive learning approach.

Key Principles of a Spiral Curriculum

Why do students often find it easy to recall information about ancient civilisations like the Mayans and Greeks, yet struggle to remember specific details?

The concept of a spiral curriculum offers an explanation. By introducing topics in a basic form and gradually increasing the complexity, students are exposed to the material multiple times at different levels. This approach enhances retention and fosters a deeper understanding over time.

The spiral curriculum model focuses on a gradual and interconnected deepening of understanding. Through repeated exposure, students iteratively encounter new content, reinforce previous learning, and grapple with more complex concepts. This process helps build a solid foundation of knowledge.

Jerome Bruner, a key researcher behind this method, emphasised the importance of establishing a strong base and expanding on it with each revisit of a topic. This aids in developing a profound understanding of core concepts and encourages the application of critical thinking skills.

Central to Bruner’s approach is the structuring of curricula so that topics are revisited after acquiring necessary prerequisite knowledge. This enables students to integrate new material with prior learning, enhancing their ability to apply knowledge to novel situations.

Importantly, the spiral curriculum model is not about mere repetition or rote learning. Its aim is to foster long-term retention and practical application by allowing students to engage with material in varied contexts and at increasing levels of complexity.

Through this cyclical process, students can reflect on their learning, deepen their comprehension, and cultivate fresh insights. This can result in:

• Enhanced problem-solving abilities
• Improved critical thinking skills
• Effective transfer of knowledge to new scenarios

Particularly beneficial for students who struggle with conventional linear approaches, spiral curricula provide additional support and reinforcement to help master key concepts and skills.

By incorporating a variety of instructional methods and assessment techniques, spiral curricula sustain student engagement and motivation. This enhances the overall learning experience and empowers students to take ownership of their educational progress. Leveraging Bloom’s Taxonomy for varied assessments allows teachers to effectively gauge student progress and tailor instruction within a Spiral Curriculum. Through integrating different levels of thinking skills into assessments, educators ensure students master material at progressively higher levels of complexity.

Engaging children in the classroom for better learning involves creating interactive learning experiences to enhance student engagement and facilitate knowledge retention. For example, using group projects and discussions can make learning more dynamic and memorable.

In essence, the spiral curriculum model offers a flexible and dynamic approach to teaching and learning. Adaptable to a wide array of subjects, grade levels, and learner requirements, it proves to be an invaluable tool for educators striving to foster meaningful and enduring learning outcomes.

As we move into the next section, “Implementing a Spiral Curriculum in the Classroom”, it is important to understand how these principles can be practically applied. Understanding the key principles of a spiral curriculum is just the first step. Implementing these concepts effectively can transform classroom practices and significantly improve learning outcomes.

Implementing a Spiral Curriculum in the Classroom

Educational academic David Whitburn and his colleagues have observed that children from diverse backgrounds and with varying levels of ability can interpret data in a way that aligns with the logic of the spiral curriculum. They note that children often show their understanding by drawing parallels between current and previous learning experiences, highlighting similarities and differences over time.

In the 1960s, Jerome Bruner built upon this observation by introducing the spiral curriculum model based on Constructivist Theory. This approach, rooted in constructivist principles, posits that learning is a continuous process of deepening comprehension. The model entails revisiting topics with increasing complexity, emphasising the importance of foundational concepts and progressive learning. By connecting new knowledge with existing mental models (schemas), students can grasp complex ideas more readily.

The notion of iterative learning aligns with Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, which advocate revisiting basic concepts for a deeper understanding. Implementing a curriculum that repeatedly revisits topics allows for a smoother integration of new knowledge within students’ existing schemas. This approach enables the introduction of advanced concepts earlier than in a linear curriculum.

Effective teaching based on Constructivist Theory involves promoting active student engagement and knowledge construction. In a spiral curriculum, key concepts are presented iteratively with increasing layers of complexity and practical applications. For example, the University of Detroit Mercy uses this methodology in their electrical and computer engineering program. Here, key ideas are revisited with growing complexity, using robotics to integrate knowledge across courses. This structure fosters an integrated view of electronic engineering design as a systems integration challenge rather than isolated component designs.

Practical examples of implementing a spiral curriculum in the classroom include:

• Introducing fundamental maths concepts in early years and revisiting them with added complexity in later years
• Using storytelling in language arts to revisit themes and character development
• Employing project-based learning where students build on previous projects to incorporate new skills and knowledge

For more information on the spiral curriculum at University of Detroit Mercy, visit their website.

Understanding how to implement a spiral curriculum can lead to more effective teaching and improved learning experiences for children. It’s essential for educators and parents to consider how this method can be applied to foster intrinsic motivation and positive development in children.

Moving forward, let’s delve into how Differentiated Instruction fits within a spiral curriculum. Differentiated Instruction can address the individual needs of students, ensuring that each child can benefit from the iterative learning process of a spiral curriculum.

Jerome Bruner’s theory of development is based on the presumption that we learn best from the concrete to the abstract in a three-step process: through involvement in the action, through images, and when learned by the students is transformed into ‘language’. The video discusses how the Singapore government successfully implemented Bruner’s ideas in their mathematical curriculum, focusing on active participation, representation through images, and symbolic representation to enhance students’ learning experience in a spiral manner. Teachers in Singapore use a structured approach with a focus on repetition and scaffolding to help students achieve desired learning outcomes. The success of this approach, with Singaporean students excelling in mathematics and science, has led to the adoption of similar practices worldwide.

Differentiated Instruction in a Spiral Curriculum

The concept of personalised learning paths in a spiral curriculum is a valuable asset in education. By revisiting topics with increasing complexity, students can enhance their understanding and skills over time. This approach is particularly beneficial for students with diverse learning styles and abilities.

In rural Serbia, embracing technology in the classroom can support tailor-made learning experiences. By adjusting the difficulty and pace of instruction based on individual needs, educators can create a more engaging and effective learning environment. Adaptive teaching strategies ensure that each student receives the support and guidance necessary for their academic growth.

Customised instructional strategies, like using audio books and visual aids, cater to various learning styles. For example, in the Orton-Gillingham approach, multi-sensory teaching methods engage students with specific learning needs, such as dyslexia and dyspraxia. By incorporating individualised learning plans, educators can offer a personalised approach that addresses each student’s unique requirements.

Collaboration with support staff is vital in identifying students’ particular needs and providing targeted interventions. The integration of technology, such as online platforms and adaptive learning software, offers students the flexibility to access resources at their own pace. A combination of academic rigour and a supportive learning environment is pivotal in fostering a positive atmosphere that enhances students’ learning experiences.

Formative assessments throughout the learning process measure student progress and identify areas for improvement. By establishing clear unit learning targets and prioritising standards, educators can create assessments that promote constructive feedback and effectively measure progress. Diagnostic assessments and universal screeners help in evaluating students’ understanding, identifying gaps, and adjusting instruction accordingly.

As outlined in the WGU Design Patterns, a spiral curriculum allows for continuous reinforcement and consolidation of knowledge. This structured learning method enables students to revisit topics multiple times, each time with a deeper understanding. This approach is especially beneficial in fields like nursing, where students progress from basic anatomy to complex patient care.

Assessment is crucial to the success of a spiral curriculum. In the next section, “Assessment Strategies in a Spiral Curriculum,” we will explore how various assessment methods can support this dynamic learning model and contribute to student success.

Summary of Adaptive Teaching Strategies in Education

Key Points	Examples
Personalised learning paths in a spiral curriculum	Revisiting topics with increasing complexity over time
Embracing technology in rural Serbia	Adjusting instruction based on individual needs
Customised instructional strategies	Using audio books and visual aids for different learning styles
Collaboration with support staff	Identifying students’ needs and providing targeted interventions
Formative assessments during the learning process	Measuring progress and identifying areas for improvement
Spiral curriculum in nursing education	Continuous reinforcement and consolidation of knowledge
Importance of assessment in a spiral curriculum	Contributing to student success through various assessment methods

Assessment Strategies in a Spiral Curriculum

How do educators assess student learning in a spiral curriculum?

A spiral curriculum involves the repeating and revisiting of topics to deepen understanding and develop essential thinking skills. By using open-ended questions and project-based learning, educators can effectively measure student progress.

The revised Bloom’s Taxonomy emphasises verbs over nouns and introduces a knowledge dimension to classify different types of knowledge. Using this taxonomy, educators can create a variety of assessments that align with learning objectives and help all students succeed.

Mixing up practice problems has a positive impact on maths learning. Encouraging information retrieval by prompting students to recall from memory, rather than simply reviewing material, is beneficial. Effective methods to incorporate this practice include:

• Flashcards
• Quizzes
• Short-answer questions

Grouping students thoughtfully can significantly influence performance. Whether students work alone or in groups, careful planning can enhance their learning experience.

According to a South Dakota State University tool, assessment is “the systematic collection, review, and use of information about educational programmes undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning and development.” The goal of these practices is to provide evidence of student learning and use that evidence to make necessary changes for quality programmes and positive student outcomes.

The assessment process involves:

• Identifying student learning outcomes
• Collecting and interpreting evidence
• Using that information to implement change

The visual tool referred to as the “assessment spiral” is particularly useful. It ties into our discussion by illustrating the cyclical nature of assessment.

The WGU Design Patterns demonstrate the spiral curriculum through revisiting topics over time. Assessment in this context can be likened to a spiral staircase, with variations such as:

• Up-spinning: Topics are revisited in a progressive “S”-shaped sequence, blending new material with reviews of past topics.
• Down-spinning: Instructors intersperse older material revisits throughout the course, rather than following a linear topic progression.

This comprehensive approach ensures that students build on previous knowledge continuously, which is essential for improving learning experiences and overall well-being.

In the next section, we will explore Adapting the Spiral Curriculum for Different Learning Styles. This is vital, as understanding and tailoring education to individual needs ensures that each student benefits fully from a spiral curriculum.

Adapting the Spiral Curriculum for Different Learning Styles

How do we keep kids engaged using a spiral curriculum?

The theory of Multiple Intelligences, proposed by Howard Gardner, suggests that individuals have strengths in various types of intelligence, such as linguistic, visual-spatial, musical, and interpersonal abilities. Recognising and nurturing these strengths can enhance a child’s ability to learn and understand information. Adapting teaching practices is essential for catering to this diverse range of learners.

By embracing methods that accommodate different learning styles, educators can effectively support students who might otherwise struggle with key concepts. For example, personalised direct instruction, breaking tasks into manageable steps, and providing ongoing feedback are highly effective. Creating opportunities for collaborative learning, where children can engage with peers through shared activities and discussions, fosters deeper comprehension and interest in the subject matter.

Empowering student autonomy by enabling children to take ownership of their learning and assisting them in developing self-regulation skills is crucial. These skills include goal-setting, time management, and self-monitoring. This approach equips students to become independent lifelong learners.

Delving into commonly referenced visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles shows that catering to various modalities in the classroom can significantly enhance learning and retention. By incorporating a range of aids and activities that appeal to these styles, such as visual aids, interactive tasks, and auditory cues, teachers create a more inclusive and effective learning environment.

The Spiral Curriculum, a learning model that revisits topics over time and increases in complexity, allows learners to build on existing skills and knowledge. By employing this approach, instructors can tailor lessons to accommodate different learning styles—which also enhances students’ meta-cognitive abilities. Meta-cognition involves understanding one’s own learning preferences and adjusting study habits accordingly.

Using the Spiral Curriculum in this manner helps teachers adapt lessons to diverse learning styles. This adaptation aids students in developing their meta-cognitive skills, making them more confident in their learning journey.

Our next section, “Case Studies of Schools Using a Spiral Curriculum,” will illustrate how this approach works in real-world educational settings. These case studies will provide practical examples and insights into successfully implementing a Spiral Curriculum.

• Visual aids: Posters, charts, and videos that illustrate concepts.
• Interactive tasks: Hands-on activities, experiments, and real-world projects.
• Auditory cues: Recordings, oral discussions, and musical elements.

Case Studies of Schools Using a Spiral Curriculum

How have schools and educational programmes used the spiral curriculum approach to improve their teaching and student outcomes?

Exemplary Schools Embracing Spiral Curriculum Approach:

• White Rose Education has designed a popular maths scheme of learning that follows a block-based structure for each year group, spiralling back to each topic throughout the primary phase. Third Space Learning’s resources also build upon skills throughout the school year, reinforcing past learning to ensure students grasp the basics before exploring topics in depth.
• The spiral curriculum approach is excellent for teaching complex or abstract concepts, such as mathematical formulae or scientific theories. It can lead to better student learning outcomes.
• This approach is also common in adult education, where foundational knowledge is built from freshman courses and complexity increases over time.

Success Stories and Student Outcomes:

• The spiral curriculum model allows for the reinforcement of previous learning. New content is taught in the context of what has already been learned, enabling students to gain a deeper understanding of key concepts and apply their knowledge in real-world situations.
• Students taught using a spiral curriculum may demonstrate a deeper conceptual understanding of the content, reducing test anxiety and improving overall outcomes.
• The cyclical and increasing depth of spiralling helps students build on existing knowledge and deepen their understanding over time.

Challenges Faced and Solutions Implemented:

• Some limitations include the risk of the curriculum becoming too crowded and rigid, requiring re-teaching of concepts not well understood initially.
• The linear nature of the spiral curriculum may not always align with the interconnected nature of some subjects, potentially leading to superficial understanding and the need to unlearn misconceptions.
• Covering numerous topics may impact retention if content is not reviewed between topics. A well-structured curriculum, focusing on basics and progressively deepening understanding, can address these challenges.

Lessons Learned for Implementation in Other Educational Settings:

• Embracing the spiral curriculum can lead to long-term learning outcomes, with teachers revisiting concepts, increasing complexity, and utilising prior knowledge effectively.
• Jerome Bruner’s spiral curriculum model is effective for early years learning environments, enhancing conceptual learning and developing residual knowledge.
• Teachers must consider prerequisite knowledge to build on existing skills, gradually introducing topics with increasing complexity. A range of teaching methods—such as group work, problem-solving activities, and visual aids—can engage students fully with the subject matter.

Hazel Samala conducted a study at Ramon T. Diaz National High School, focusing on Grade 12 students using the spiral progression approach in the K to 12 Science Curriculum. The study demonstrated that students had a high level of scientific understanding in physical science, with observation skills rated very high. Experimentation, measurement, communication, and inference skills were deemed high. There were no significant differences in scientific understanding between male and female students, although measurement skills differed by gender. However, students faced challenges transitioning between topics as they progressed to higher grade levels due to limited time allocation in lower grades.

Surrey University describes how their spiral curriculum in the School of Medicine uses case scenarios as the foundation for learning. This approach helps bring medicine to life and contextualises the material for students. Unlike traditional models, it does not require a foundation of knowledge before working with patients. In back pain sessions, for example, students first understand the anatomical information before considering patient history and differential diagnoses. As they interact with patients and healthcare teams, students deepen their understanding of back pain and its management, revisiting and building upon this knowledge throughout their studies.

In Performance of Senior High School Students in Spiral Progression Approach of the K to 12 Science Curriculum, the study focused on the performance of Grade 12 senior high school students. It was found that they possessed a high level of scientific understanding and effectively acquired science process skills. There was no significant difference between the scientific understanding of male and female students. However, some students faced difficulties in transitioning to higher grades due to limited time for certain topics in lower grades.

Conclusion and Transition:

The case studies highlight the potential benefits and challenges of implementing a spiral curriculum. Schools utilising this approach have seen improvements in deeper understanding and real-world application of concepts. However, addressing challenges such as curriculum crowding and ensuring effective transitions between topics is crucial.

Understanding these practical examples sets the stage for more formal research. The following section, “Research on the Efficacy of Spiral Curriculums,” will delve into the empirical evidence supporting this educational approach.

Research on the Efficacy of Spiral Curriculums

Have you ever studied the science of how we learn?

The British education expert Currankeitlin conducted numerous research studies on this very topic—the effectiveness of spiral curriculums compared to the linear degree programmes that are more commonly used.

Research consistently supports the benefits of spiral curriculums, particularly in terms of enhancing academic performance and cognitive development. In the realm of education, a spiral curriculum can be likened to an upward spiral, where foundational concepts are introduced initially and then built upon through subsequent encounters.

In contrast to traditional linear curriculums, which may lack opportunities for reinforcing prior learning, spiral curriculums allow for concepts to be revisited and developed at increasing levels of complexity. By repeatedly engaging with and expanding upon previous knowledge, students are more likely to retain key skills and information for future learning opportunities.

Studies rooted in cognitive science and brain-based learning show that revisiting concepts over time helps students strengthen their memory and improve long-term learning outcomes. This approach is particularly advantageous when teaching complex or abstract subjects, as it facilitates a more thorough exploration of underlying principles and their practical applications.

Implementing spiral learning into national curriculums involves creating units of work that pick up where the previous unit left off, ensuring a seamless progression that builds upon previously taught material. This structure enables students to revisit and reinforce essential skills, ultimately leading to a deeper conceptual understanding and enhanced learning outcomes.

The well-being of children is closely linked to their ability to actively engage in learning and explore new concepts. By fostering a growth mindset in children, educators can nurture resilience and a passion for learning. These fundamental principles are crucial for successfully implanting a Spiral Curriculum.

To illustrate, imagine a primary school maths lesson where basic arithmetic is introduced. In a spiral curriculum, these arithmetic skills are revisited in subsequent lessons, gradually introducing more complex operations like fractions and algebra. This method ensures children do not just learn but master concepts progressively.

Recognising the importance of effective teaching methodologies, our next section will delve into Professional Development for Teachers on Spiral Curriculums. This is essential for equipping educators with the skills needed to implement these strategies effectively.

Professional Development for Teachers on Spiral Curriculums

The development and use of spiral curriculums in education has been a topic of interest for educational researchers for many years. Jerome Bruner introduced the spiral curriculum model in the 1960s, which emphasises revisiting topics to deepen learning. This approach promotes conceptual understanding and long-term knowledge retention.

To aid teachers in developing more advanced teaching and learning strategies, schools have gathered specific information on implementing spiral curriculums. This has led to improvements in teaching techniques and enabled educators to enhance their training and capabilities. The goal is to provide improved educational techniques for children.

Many researchers, including Wolfert and Cameron, have highlighted the importance of acquiring information from various sources to enhance educators’ skills in spiral curriculum practices. Teachers can benefit from attending workshops and professional development sessions, and from engaging in continuous learning.

Recently, educators have shown an interest in integrating mathematics and science within the spiral curriculum. By using event-based approaches that engage students, teachers have reported enhanced understanding among pupils. Spiral curriculums help make connections between earlier and recent information, improving overall student comprehension.

Harden and Stamper have noted that teachers can utilise various teaching methods to actively engage students in learning complex or abstract concepts. Methods such as group work and problem-solving tasks can make learning more interactive and effective.

The Reggio Emilia approach places a strong emphasis on continuous professional development for teachers. Attending workshops and collaborating with peers allows teachers to stay updated on the latest research and teaching practices. Peer learning and collaboration are crucial in effectively implementing the spiral curriculum, as shared experiences enhance knowledge of child development and teaching strategies.

While the spiral curriculum promotes deeper understanding, teachers need to be mindful of potential limitations. These include the risk of overburdening the curriculum and the need to reinforce forgotten concepts. Teachers should ensure that students have the prerequisite knowledge to build upon their existing skills and understanding.

• Engage in continuous professional development: Attending workshops and professional development sessions can enhance teaching skills.
• Utilise various teaching methods: Incorporate group work and problem-solving tasks to actively engage students.
• Integrate subjects: Use the spiral curriculum to make connections between subjects like mathematics and science.
• Be mindful of limitations: Ensure students have the necessary background knowledge and avoid overburdening the curriculum.

Implementing a spiral curriculum effectively can significantly improve children’s learning experiences and overall well-being, helping them achieve a deeper understanding of the subjects they are studying.

Fostering Growth and Innovation in Child Education

How do you capture a child’s interest and make their learning holistic, systematic and sequential?

The spiral curriculum is a robust model that enhances learning by revisiting topics in a sequential manner, gradually increasing in complexity each time students encounter them. This pedagogical approach lays a strong foundation by introducing fundamental concepts first and building upon them as the curriculum progresses. Embedded within the spiral nature of the curriculum is the reinforcement of previously learned concepts alongside the introduction of new, related content.

In classrooms that implement the spiral curriculum, teachers can effectively utilise a range of teaching methods such as group work, problem-solving activities, and visual aids to engage learners. This educational strategy is grounded in three key principles: cyclical learning, increasing depth with each revisit, and building upon existing knowledge to foster enhanced long-term learning outcomes.

Through the application of the spiral curriculum model, teachers facilitate a more effective grasp and retention of complex or abstract concepts. This approach is particularly advantageous for children in their formative years, promoting deeper comprehension and improved retention.

By focusing on concepts that align with each child’s developmental stage and gradually increasing in complexity, teachers nurture a coherent and interconnected knowledge base within students. This enhances their ability to apply their learning across various contexts.

• Benefits of Using a Spiral Curriculum: Improved retention, deeper comprehension, and more effective knowledge application.
• Key Principles of a Spiral Curriculum: Cyclical learning, increasing depth, and building on existing knowledge.
• Implementing a Spiral Curriculum in the Classroom: Use of diverse teaching methods like group work and visual aids.
• Differentiated Instruction in a Spiral Curriculum: Tailoring complexity to each child’s developmental stage.
• Assessment Strategies in a Spiral Curriculum: Regular, formative assessments to gauge understanding and progress.
• Adapting the Spiral Curriculum for Different Learning Styles: Employing various techniques to meet diverse learner needs.
• Case Studies of Schools Using a Spiral Curriculum: Real-world examples showcasing successful implementation.
• Research on the Efficacy of Spiral Curriculums: Studies demonstrating improved learning outcomes.
• Professional Development for Teachers on Spiral Curriculums: Training educators to effectively apply this model.

By embracing the spiral curriculum, educators and parents can significantly enhance their children’s learning experiences and overall well-being. Start applying these principles today to see the positive impact on children’s education and development.

Further reading

• Bloom’s Taxonomy
• Constructivist Theory
• Meta-cognition
• Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
• Reggio Emilia approach